Habitat destruction is the most effective form of removal of any particular form of life from the face of earth. As far as the South Indian orchids are concerned , destruction of natural forests is the greatest threat to their existence. During the mad plunder of the Himalayan orchids during the pre-independence days, the orchids of South India escaped a similar fate, because they were not as showy as their ill-fated Himalayan counterparts and also because this stretch of orchid-growing land is rather isolated from the other parts. There is also probably a third reason, which is that the people of South India are not yet quite aware of the wealth of orchids their mountains possess, nor have they realized what these plants are worth in the foreign market. So long as this state of affairs prevails , there will be no threat of overcollection for South Indian orchids.
But ever since the various plantation crops were introduced here and especially during the past two decades , there has been an unprecedented amount of clearing or forest land for purposes of agriculture . This has been true particularly in the State of Kerala where the Government has recently passed regulations to take over all privately owned forest lands. The land owners, in order to retain land , went into a fenzy of converting forest lands into plantations ,with the result that acres of orchid-inhabiting areas were destroyed.
Fortunately not all kinds of forest clearing affects natural orchid population ,eg. , the cardamom plantations usually need heavy shading and there is need for only selective felling of trees , before the land is prepared for planting . This usually involves a clearing of the undergrowth ,while the tall trees are left as they are . Orchids are benefited rather than harmed by such selective felling . The free air movement and the increase in sunlight provided by the clearing away of several crowded trees and the undergrowth in an otherwise dense tropical rain forest , encourage growth of epiphytic orchids. This fact was evident in many of the cardamom plantations we visited during our survey . Rather unfortunately not all plantation crops need heavy shading .
Even in forest areas which have been left unmolested by the above agencies ,threats to the peaceful existence of orchids occur in one form or other . The people who eke out a living by selling the natural produces of the forests like honey, cane , etc., are the main agents of destruction here. In the dry summer months , in order to make their forest trails clear and to keep away reptiles etc., are the main agents of destruction here . In the dry summer months , in order to make their forest trails clear and to keep away reptiles etc.,they set fire to the dry grass. This fire may destroy not only the grass , but also the various terrestrial orchids that grow among the grass, particularly those which do not possess underground tubers . It has been suggested that this may be the reason why the much sought after Paphiopedilum druril,which according to Col. Druru were growing abundantly at the top of the Calcad Hills at one time is now practically extinct .
It is indeed a consoling fact to those who love orchids, that moves are being made at international level for the conservation of orchids . The American Orchid Society has formed an Orchid Conservation Committee with W.W.G. Moir as Chairman and six others as members . The international Union for the Conversation of Nature and Natural Resources has a Survival Service Commision functioning under it . This Commision also has a pilot scheme for spotting and conserving endangered species . Saving of endangered species is only one half of the picture . Only by providing proper sanctuaries to these species can their safe future survival be assured . Just as we provide sanctuaries for wild animals and birds , so should proper habitats be provided for the orchid species as well , so that the infinite variety and colour which these unusual group of plants contribute these lines in India is now being initiated under the leadership of the Director of the Botanical Survey of India .
Tuesday, January 20, 2009
Composition of Biogas
Biogas is a colourless, odourless, inflammable gas, produced by organic waste and biomass decomposition (fermentation). Biogas can be produced from animal, human and plant (crop) wastes, weeds, grasses, vines, leaves, aquatic plants and crop residues etc. The composition of different gases in biogas :
Biogas burns with a blue flame. It has a heat value of 500-700 BTU/Ft3 (4,500-5,000 Kcal/M3) when its methane content is in the range of 60-70%. The value is directly proportional to the amount of methane contains and this depends upon the nature of raw materials used in the digestion. Since the composition of this gas is different, the burners designed for coal gas, butane or LPG when used, as ‘biogas burner’ will give much lower efficiency. Therefore specially designed biogas burners are used which give a thermal efficiency of 55-65%.
Biogas is a very stable gas, which is a non-toxic, colourless, tasteless and odourless gas. However, as biogas has a small percentage of Hydrogen Sulphide, the mixture may very slightly smell of rotten egg, which is not often noticeable especially when being burned. When the mixture of methane and air (oxygen) burn a blue flame is emitted, producing large amount of heat energy. Because of the mixture of Carbon Dioxide in large quantity the biogas becomes a safe fuel in rural homes as will prevent explosion.A 1 M3 biogas will generate 4,500-5,500 Kcal/m2 of heat energy, and when burned in specifically designed burners having 60% efficiency, will give out effective heat of 2,700-3,200 Kcal/m2. 1 Kcal is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (litre) of water by 1 degrees Celsius. Therefore this effective heat (say 3,000 Kcal/m2 is on an average), is sufficient to bring approx. 100 kg (litre) of water from 20 degrees Celsius to a boil, or light a lamp with a brightness equivalent to 60-100 Watts for 4-5 hours.
The decomposition (fermentation) process for the formation of methane from organic material (biodegradable material) involves a group of organisms belonging to the family- ‘Methane Bacteria’ and is a complex biological and chemical process. For the understanding of common people and field workers, broadly speaking the biogas production involves two major processes consisting of acid formation (liquefaction) and gas formation (gasification). However scientifically speaking these two broad process can further be divide, which gives four stages of anaerobic fermentation inside the digester-they are (i) Hydrolysis, (ii) Acidification, (iii) Hydrogenation and (iv) Methane Formation. At the same time for all practical purposes one can take the methane production cycle as a three stage activity- namely, (i) Hydrolysis, (ii) Acidification and (iii) Methane formation.Two groups of bacteria work on the substrate (feedstock) inside the digester-they are (i) Non-methanogens and (ii) Methanogens. Under normal conditions, the non-methanogenic bacteria (microbes) can grow at a pH range of 5.0-8.5 and a temperature range of 25-42 deg. ;whereas, methanogenic bacteria can ideally grow at a pH range of 6.5-7.5 and a temperature range of 25-35 degrees Celsius. These methanogenic bacteria are known as ‘Mesophillic Bacteria’ and are found to be more flexible and useful incase of simple household digesters, as they can work under a broad range of temperature, as low as 15 degrees Celsius to as high
Biogas burns with a blue flame. It has a heat value of 500-700 BTU/Ft3 (4,500-5,000 Kcal/M3) when its methane content is in the range of 60-70%. The value is directly proportional to the amount of methane contains and this depends upon the nature of raw materials used in the digestion. Since the composition of this gas is different, the burners designed for coal gas, butane or LPG when used, as ‘biogas burner’ will give much lower efficiency. Therefore specially designed biogas burners are used which give a thermal efficiency of 55-65%.
Biogas is a very stable gas, which is a non-toxic, colourless, tasteless and odourless gas. However, as biogas has a small percentage of Hydrogen Sulphide, the mixture may very slightly smell of rotten egg, which is not often noticeable especially when being burned. When the mixture of methane and air (oxygen) burn a blue flame is emitted, producing large amount of heat energy. Because of the mixture of Carbon Dioxide in large quantity the biogas becomes a safe fuel in rural homes as will prevent explosion.A 1 M3 biogas will generate 4,500-5,500 Kcal/m2 of heat energy, and when burned in specifically designed burners having 60% efficiency, will give out effective heat of 2,700-3,200 Kcal/m2. 1 Kcal is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (litre) of water by 1 degrees Celsius. Therefore this effective heat (say 3,000 Kcal/m2 is on an average), is sufficient to bring approx. 100 kg (litre) of water from 20 degrees Celsius to a boil, or light a lamp with a brightness equivalent to 60-100 Watts for 4-5 hours.
The decomposition (fermentation) process for the formation of methane from organic material (biodegradable material) involves a group of organisms belonging to the family- ‘Methane Bacteria’ and is a complex biological and chemical process. For the understanding of common people and field workers, broadly speaking the biogas production involves two major processes consisting of acid formation (liquefaction) and gas formation (gasification). However scientifically speaking these two broad process can further be divide, which gives four stages of anaerobic fermentation inside the digester-they are (i) Hydrolysis, (ii) Acidification, (iii) Hydrogenation and (iv) Methane Formation. At the same time for all practical purposes one can take the methane production cycle as a three stage activity- namely, (i) Hydrolysis, (ii) Acidification and (iii) Methane formation.Two groups of bacteria work on the substrate (feedstock) inside the digester-they are (i) Non-methanogens and (ii) Methanogens. Under normal conditions, the non-methanogenic bacteria (microbes) can grow at a pH range of 5.0-8.5 and a temperature range of 25-42 deg. ;whereas, methanogenic bacteria can ideally grow at a pH range of 6.5-7.5 and a temperature range of 25-35 degrees Celsius. These methanogenic bacteria are known as ‘Mesophillic Bacteria’ and are found to be more flexible and useful incase of simple household digesters, as they can work under a broad range of temperature, as low as 15 degrees Celsius to as high
CycleCity Guides
Welcome to CycleCity Guides. We are the UK’s leading producer of urban cycling maps and guides, with over 125 maps to our name. Based in Frome, Somerset, we have produced maps for all areas of the country.
We provide a complete service from initial surveying through cartography and design to the finished folded map. Each map is unique, tailored to a specific project. Our packages can fit every need from a simple path audit to a large city map with a dense network of cycle routes.
With our experience in planning, public consultation and public relations we are in a strong position to provide quality sustainable travel advice.
CycleCity Guides began ten years ago in the West Country with the creation of the first edition of the Bristol Cycling Map. Since then we have completed more than 125 cycling maps and guides for cities and regions throughout the British Isles. We are an independent, privately owned company, committed to the principles of sustainable transport. This complements the ethos of many of our clients and partners: no company cars, only company bikes!
Good maps depend on good basic information. Our surveyors have years of experience in developing complex urban cycle networks, finding routes across what appears to be a hostile terrain of motorway junctions, inner ring-roads and railway and river crossings.
We use GPS satellite technology to record routes and facilities with great accuracy, which then can be supplied in all common GIS formats. The information can be used by our clients within their own data bases for evaluation in all aspects of local government transport planning.
The surveys deliver an accurate asset audit of cycle route infrastructure, an advisory network of additional cycle routes, and an attractive series of paper maps for the user. The quality of our data is unchallenged, but collaborative, and can be used in many ways again and again.
We provide a complete service from initial surveying through cartography and design to the finished folded map. Each map is unique, tailored to a specific project. Our packages can fit every need from a simple path audit to a large city map with a dense network of cycle routes.
With our experience in planning, public consultation and public relations we are in a strong position to provide quality sustainable travel advice.
CycleCity Guides began ten years ago in the West Country with the creation of the first edition of the Bristol Cycling Map. Since then we have completed more than 125 cycling maps and guides for cities and regions throughout the British Isles. We are an independent, privately owned company, committed to the principles of sustainable transport. This complements the ethos of many of our clients and partners: no company cars, only company bikes!
Good maps depend on good basic information. Our surveyors have years of experience in developing complex urban cycle networks, finding routes across what appears to be a hostile terrain of motorway junctions, inner ring-roads and railway and river crossings.
We use GPS satellite technology to record routes and facilities with great accuracy, which then can be supplied in all common GIS formats. The information can be used by our clients within their own data bases for evaluation in all aspects of local government transport planning.
The surveys deliver an accurate asset audit of cycle route infrastructure, an advisory network of additional cycle routes, and an attractive series of paper maps for the user. The quality of our data is unchallenged, but collaborative, and can be used in many ways again and again.
Banking Sector
The rising proportion of unsecured loans, increasing exposure to high-risk customers, spiralling interest rates and a decline in credit standards from 2004 to 2007 will result in more bad debt for the Indian banking sector, rating agency Crisil said today.
In a new report, the agency said the gross non-performing assets for the sector will rise to around 4 per cent on an asset size of over Rs 5,50,000 crore by March 2009, as against 2.7 per cent at the end of March 31, 2007. The rise in bad debt will translate into more losses for lenders.
Crisil, however, expects the situation to be manageable as the less risky mortgage loans and vehicle loan segments continue to dominate the retail lending portfolio of lenders, with a 80 per cent share of the total loan outstanding. Further, rising personal incomes and younger borrower profiles provide a cushion in the mortgage loan segment.
The increasing exposure to higher risk customers is mainly through personal loans and credit card receivables, which are unsecured in nature and formed 17 per cent of the total outstanding retail loans in March 2007 compared to 6 per cent in 2004.
The agency estimates the loss levels in the sub-prime segment comprising small-ticket personal loans and a portion of credit card receivables from low-income customers, will increase to 10-13 per cent over the medium-term from the current 7-9 per cent. Housing loans constitute over half the retail loan portfolio in India.
Gross NPAs in the home loan market rose to 2.2 per cent in March 2007 from 1.8 per cent in 2005 and is expected to increase to 2.7 per cent during 2008-09. The car and commercial vehicle asset segments comprise one-third of the total retail loans. Crisil said the gross NPAs in car and commercial vehicles business segments increased to 2.3 per cent and 4 per cent respectively at the end of March 2007. In 2008-09, these numbers are seen at 3 per cent for car loans and 5.5 per cent for commercial vehicles.The difficulty in loan recovery may compel some players to exit the small-ticket personal loan segment, which has been affected the most. The exit of players could drive lower income borrowers to the money lenders, which will be detrimental to the policy goal of seeking larger financial inclusion. Another outcome of the intense publicity surrounding recovery methods could be an increase in wilful defaults by borrowers
In a new report, the agency said the gross non-performing assets for the sector will rise to around 4 per cent on an asset size of over Rs 5,50,000 crore by March 2009, as against 2.7 per cent at the end of March 31, 2007. The rise in bad debt will translate into more losses for lenders.
Crisil, however, expects the situation to be manageable as the less risky mortgage loans and vehicle loan segments continue to dominate the retail lending portfolio of lenders, with a 80 per cent share of the total loan outstanding. Further, rising personal incomes and younger borrower profiles provide a cushion in the mortgage loan segment.
The increasing exposure to higher risk customers is mainly through personal loans and credit card receivables, which are unsecured in nature and formed 17 per cent of the total outstanding retail loans in March 2007 compared to 6 per cent in 2004.
The agency estimates the loss levels in the sub-prime segment comprising small-ticket personal loans and a portion of credit card receivables from low-income customers, will increase to 10-13 per cent over the medium-term from the current 7-9 per cent. Housing loans constitute over half the retail loan portfolio in India.
Gross NPAs in the home loan market rose to 2.2 per cent in March 2007 from 1.8 per cent in 2005 and is expected to increase to 2.7 per cent during 2008-09. The car and commercial vehicle asset segments comprise one-third of the total retail loans. Crisil said the gross NPAs in car and commercial vehicles business segments increased to 2.3 per cent and 4 per cent respectively at the end of March 2007. In 2008-09, these numbers are seen at 3 per cent for car loans and 5.5 per cent for commercial vehicles.The difficulty in loan recovery may compel some players to exit the small-ticket personal loan segment, which has been affected the most. The exit of players could drive lower income borrowers to the money lenders, which will be detrimental to the policy goal of seeking larger financial inclusion. Another outcome of the intense publicity surrounding recovery methods could be an increase in wilful defaults by borrowers
Air pollution
When people think about air pollution, they usually think about smog, acid rain, CFC's, and other forms of outdoor air pollution. But did you know that air pollution also can exist inside homes and other buildings? It can, and every year, the health of many people is affected by chemical substances present in the air within buildings.
A great deal of research on pollution is being conducted at laboratories and universities. The goals of the research are to find solutions and to educate the public about the problem. Two places where this type of work is being done are LBNL and the University of California, Berkeley.
Air is the ocean we breathe. Air supplies us with oxygen which is essential for our bodies to live. Air is 99.9% nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and inert gases. Human activities can release substances into the air, some of which can cause problems for humans, plants, and animals.
There are several main types of pollution and well-known effects of pollution which are commonly discussed. These include smog, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and "holes" in the ozone layer. Each of these problems has serious implications for our health and well-being as well as for the whole environment.
One type of air pollution is the release of particles into the air from burning fuel for energy. Diesel smoke is a good example of this particulate matter . The particles are very small pieces of matter measuring about 2.5 microns or about .0001 inches. This type of pollution is sometimes referred to as "black carbon" pollution. The exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is a major source of pollution in the air. Some authorities believe that even the burning of wood and charcoal in fireplaces and barbeques can release significant quantities of soot into the air.
Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors. These can take part in further chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere, forming smog and acid rain.
Pollution also needs to be considered inside our homes, offices, and schools. Some of these pollutants can be created by indoor activities such as smoking and cooking. In the United States, we spend about 80-90% of our time inside buildings, and so our exposure to harmful indoor pollutants can be serious. It is therefore important to consider both indoor and outdoor air pollution.
A great deal of research on pollution is being conducted at laboratories and universities. The goals of the research are to find solutions and to educate the public about the problem. Two places where this type of work is being done are LBNL and the University of California, Berkeley.
Air is the ocean we breathe. Air supplies us with oxygen which is essential for our bodies to live. Air is 99.9% nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and inert gases. Human activities can release substances into the air, some of which can cause problems for humans, plants, and animals.
There are several main types of pollution and well-known effects of pollution which are commonly discussed. These include smog, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and "holes" in the ozone layer. Each of these problems has serious implications for our health and well-being as well as for the whole environment.
One type of air pollution is the release of particles into the air from burning fuel for energy. Diesel smoke is a good example of this particulate matter . The particles are very small pieces of matter measuring about 2.5 microns or about .0001 inches. This type of pollution is sometimes referred to as "black carbon" pollution. The exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is a major source of pollution in the air. Some authorities believe that even the burning of wood and charcoal in fireplaces and barbeques can release significant quantities of soot into the air.
Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors. These can take part in further chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere, forming smog and acid rain.
Pollution also needs to be considered inside our homes, offices, and schools. Some of these pollutants can be created by indoor activities such as smoking and cooking. In the United States, we spend about 80-90% of our time inside buildings, and so our exposure to harmful indoor pollutants can be serious. It is therefore important to consider both indoor and outdoor air pollution.
Agriculture may decline due to climate change
Though agriculture’s share in the total green house gas (GHG) emissions of India is relatively small, it will be a big loser as a consequence of climate change. Various studies have indicated a probability of 10 to 40 per cent loss in crop production in the country due to the anticipated rise in temperature by 2080-2110. The agriculture sector’s contribution to the country’s total GHG emissions is reckoned by the environment and forests ministry at only 28 per cent; the rest being from other sources, including the use of fossil fuels. Studies conducted by the New Delhi-based Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) have pointed to a possible loss of 4 to 5 million tonnes in the overall wheat production with every 1 degree centigrade increase in temperature throughout the growing period of the crop. This information has been provided in the agenda note circulated to the vice-chancellors of agricultural universities in their two-day All-India conference that began here yesterday.
Significantly, this note also indicates that the adverse impact of global warming on agriculture can be mitigated to an extent by suitably adapting to the changed climatic and ecological conditions. The estimated loss in wheat output is, however, based on the assumption that the availability of irrigation water would remain the same as it is now. But this seems unlikely in view of receding Himalayan glaciers and increasing non-agricultural use of water, the agenda note points out. The possible adverse bearing of global warming on the output of other crops has still not been assessed or ascertained precisely, though this is believed to be relatively less.
The kharif (summer) crops, in fact, may not be substantial losers in this respect. On the positive side, the higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is expected to be beneficial for several crops. Also, the damage to the crops due to ground frost, which is quite common during the rabi season in the country’s key north-western agricultural belt, may also reduce due to rise in temperature in the wake of climate change. The note points out that the small changes in climate parameters can be managed reasonably well, and the losses minimised, by changing the planting schedules, spacing of the crop plants and input management.
The IARI study had indicated that the loss in overall wheat output due to climate change could be reduced from the projected level of 4-5 million tonnes to merely 1-2 million tonnes if most farmers could change the sowing time of wheat crop. The farm sector’s emissions consist largely of methane generated from paddy fields and fermentation in ruminant animals’ stomachs, besides nitrous oxide produced from fertilisers and manures applied in the crop fields. The note has listed several ways by which these harmful emissions from the agriculture sector can be reduced. These include better management of water and fertilisers in the paddy fields and changes in the diet of livestock herds. Such measures will cut down generation of both nitrous oxide and methane. Besides, changes in land use patterns by expanding the area under agro-forestry and bio-fuel plantations could also mitigate GHG emissions. But these measures may, however, lower land availability for food crops.
Significantly, this note also indicates that the adverse impact of global warming on agriculture can be mitigated to an extent by suitably adapting to the changed climatic and ecological conditions. The estimated loss in wheat output is, however, based on the assumption that the availability of irrigation water would remain the same as it is now. But this seems unlikely in view of receding Himalayan glaciers and increasing non-agricultural use of water, the agenda note points out. The possible adverse bearing of global warming on the output of other crops has still not been assessed or ascertained precisely, though this is believed to be relatively less.
The kharif (summer) crops, in fact, may not be substantial losers in this respect. On the positive side, the higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is expected to be beneficial for several crops. Also, the damage to the crops due to ground frost, which is quite common during the rabi season in the country’s key north-western agricultural belt, may also reduce due to rise in temperature in the wake of climate change. The note points out that the small changes in climate parameters can be managed reasonably well, and the losses minimised, by changing the planting schedules, spacing of the crop plants and input management.
The IARI study had indicated that the loss in overall wheat output due to climate change could be reduced from the projected level of 4-5 million tonnes to merely 1-2 million tonnes if most farmers could change the sowing time of wheat crop. The farm sector’s emissions consist largely of methane generated from paddy fields and fermentation in ruminant animals’ stomachs, besides nitrous oxide produced from fertilisers and manures applied in the crop fields. The note has listed several ways by which these harmful emissions from the agriculture sector can be reduced. These include better management of water and fertilisers in the paddy fields and changes in the diet of livestock herds. Such measures will cut down generation of both nitrous oxide and methane. Besides, changes in land use patterns by expanding the area under agro-forestry and bio-fuel plantations could also mitigate GHG emissions. But these measures may, however, lower land availability for food crops.
Advertising
This report starts with a historical overview of the Indian advertising industry and examines how advertising spends have undergone a change over the years. It looks at the trends and key drivers and their impact on the industry. A summary of the issues faced by the advertising industry has also been included. The report conducts a detailed external and internal study of the Indian advertising industry within the PEST and Porter frameworks. It also studies the competitive landscape including the top three agencies- JWT, O&M, and Lowe’s. Since the agencies are not listed and do not disclose their financial information, the report has alternatively covered a summary of their operations and competitive strategies. The report concludes with an outlook on the industry.
The Indian advertising industry has been evolving at a fast pace over the past few years owing to an increase in the forms of media and communication and the emergence of new distribution channels. In 2005, this industry experienced a growth of xx%. Currently
India has a low ‘advertising spend to GDP’ ratio as compared to other economies.
Competition for the outsourcing business and creativity leakage represent the major issues and implications. However, the television advertising is expected to register high rates of growth, with India expected to become Asia's leading cable market by 2010.
Mumbai : The Advertising Agencies Association of India today announced its newly instituted "AAAI Lifetime Achievement Award" as the highest honour to be given to an individual in India for his/her outstanding contribution to the Advertising Industry."With Indian Advertising being recognised the world over, we at the AAAI have instituted this award to recognise the contributions of the people who have taken the industry to where it stands today," AAAI President Madhukar Kamath said, while speaking about the award.
The Indian advertising industry has been evolving at a fast pace over the past few years owing to an increase in the forms of media and communication and the emergence of new distribution channels. In 2005, this industry experienced a growth of xx%. Currently
India has a low ‘advertising spend to GDP’ ratio as compared to other economies.
Competition for the outsourcing business and creativity leakage represent the major issues and implications. However, the television advertising is expected to register high rates of growth, with India expected to become Asia's leading cable market by 2010.
Mumbai : The Advertising Agencies Association of India today announced its newly instituted "AAAI Lifetime Achievement Award" as the highest honour to be given to an individual in India for his/her outstanding contribution to the Advertising Industry."With Indian Advertising being recognised the world over, we at the AAAI have instituted this award to recognise the contributions of the people who have taken the industry to where it stands today," AAAI President Madhukar Kamath said, while speaking about the award.
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